Ch2 : Anti-Colonial Struggle in India

Chapter 2: Anti-Colonial Struggle in India

Introduction for Student-Teachers:
Dear future teachers, this chapter is about the long and courageous journey through which India won its freedom. As educators in Punjab, you have a special connection to this history—from the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy to the contributions of Punjabi revolutionaries. Understanding this struggle will help you teach children about values like courage, unity, and sacrifice, and show them how ordinary people can bring about extraordinary change.

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2.0 INTRODUCTION

The anti-colonial struggle in India was a long battle against British rule, spanning nearly a century. It was not just a political movement but a collective awakening of the Indian people—farmers, workers, students, and intellectuals—who united with the common goal of Swaraj (self-rule).

Key Features of the Indian Anti-Colonial Struggle:

1. Mass Participation: It evolved from limited revolts to a mass movement involving millions.
2. Diverse Ideologies: Different groups believed in different methods:
• Moderates: Believed in petitions, dialogues, and constitutional methods.
• Extremists: Advocated strong resistance and self-reliance.
• Revolutionaries: Believed in armed struggle to overthrow the British.
• Gandhian Approach: Centered on truth (Satya) and non-violence (Ahimsa), using tools like Satyagraha (truth-force) and civil disobedience.
3. Unity in Diversity: People from all religions, castes, languages, and regions participated, though the British often tried to divide them.
4. Tragic Outcome: The struggle succeeded in gaining independence in 1947, but it also led to the painful partition of the country into India and Pakistan, accompanied by massive violence and displacement.

In Simple Words:
Imagine your school is being run by strict, unfair outsiders. Some students write complaint letters (Moderates). Some boycott classes (Extremists). Some try to lock the office (Revolutionaries). But a wise teacher (Gandhi) suggests that everyone peacefully refuse to follow unfair rules together. Finally, the outsiders leave—but in doing so, they split the school into two buildings, causing a big upheaval. That, in essence, was India’s freedom struggle.

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2.1 MAIN EVENTS OF THE STRUGGLE

2.1.1 The Revolt of 1857: The First War of Independence

What was it?
A major uprising against the British East India Company’s rule. Though it started as a mutiny by Indian soldiers (sepoys), it quickly spread to involve kings, peasants, and artisans across North and Central India.

Why is it Important?
It was the first large-scale show of organized resistance and marked the end of Company rule, bringing India directly under the British Crown.

Causes of the Revolt:

1. Political Causes:

• Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie’s policy of annexing kingdoms if the ruler died without a natural heir. This angered rulers of states like Jhansi (Rani Lakshmibai) and Satara.
• Disrespect to Mughals: The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was reduced to a pensioner, and his heirs were denied rights.
• Annexation of Awadh: Awadh (a loyal state) was annexed in 1856 on grounds of "misgovernment," displacing thousands of soldiers and officials.

2. Economic Causes:

• Heavy Taxes: Peasants were burdened with high land revenue.
• Destruction of Local Industry: British machine-made goods ruined Indian weavers and artisans.
• Unemployment: Policies left many traditional elites and soldiers jobless.

3. Social & Religious Causes:

• Fear of Religious Conversion: Laws like the 1850 Inheritance Act, which allowed Christian converts to inherit property, made people suspect the British were trying to convert them.
• Social Reforms: Reforms like banning sati and promoting widow remarriage were seen as interference in Indian traditions.
• Western Education & Technology: Railways and telegraphs were viewed with suspicion.

4. Military Causes:

• Discrimination: Indian soldiers were paid less than British soldiers and couldn’t rise to high ranks.
• Service Conditions: They were required to serve overseas (which was against religious beliefs for some).
• The Immediate Trigger – Greased Cartridges: The new Enfield rifle cartridges were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat. Biting them open (as required) offended both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.

Key Centers and Leaders:

Center	Key Leader	Significance
Delhi	Bahadur Shah Zafar (Mughal Emperor)	Became the symbolic head of the revolt
Lucknow	Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh	Led the resistance in Awadh
Kanpur	Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa)	Led the forces and declared himself Peshwa
Jhansi	Rani Lakshmibai	Fought bravely; became a national hero
Bihar	Kunwar Singh (an old Rajput chief)	Led revolts in Arrah

Example from Punjab: Though Punjab (recently annexed in 1849) remained largely quiet due to strong British control, there were eruptions in places like Jhajjar and Hansi. The British rewarded the loyalty of Punjabi chiefs (like those of Patiala, Nabha, and Kapurthala) with grants and honors.

Results of the Revolt:

1. End of Company Rule: The British East India Company was dissolved. The Government of India Act 1858 transferred power to the British Crown.
2. Direct Rule by the Crown: A British Cabinet Minister, the Secretary of State for India, was appointed. The Governor-General was now called the Viceroy (Lord Canning was the first).
3. Policy Changes: The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn. Respect for Indian rulers' rights and non-interference in social and religious matters was promised.
4. Military Reorganization: The proportion of British to Indian soldiers was increased. Critical posts and artillery were reserved for the British.
5. Legacy: It inspired future generations. Nationalists like V.D. Savarkar later called it the "First War of Independence."

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2.1.2 The Rise of Organized Nationalism (1885-1905)

Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885):

• Founder: A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, along with Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, and W.C. Bonnerjee.
• First Session: Bombay, 1885. President: W.C. Bonnerjee.
• Aims (Initial):
• To promote friendly relations among nationalist workers.
• To develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
• To present popular demands before the British in a peaceful, constitutional manner.

Early Methods (Moderate Phase):
The early leaders, called Moderates, believed in:

• Petitions, prayers, and peaceful protests.
• Exposing British exploitation through research (e.g., Dadabhai Naoroji’s "Drain of Wealth" theory).
• Demanding Indian participation in administration and civil services.

Limitations: They had limited mass contact and achieved few concrete results, leading to frustration.

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2.1.3 The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905-1908)

Cause: Partition of Bengal (1905)

• Announced by Lord Curzon, officially for administrative efficiency.
• Real Motive: To divide Hindus and Muslims (Bengal was split into East Bengal with a Muslim majority and West Bengal with a Hindu majority).
• Reaction: Massive protests across India.

New Leadership (Extremists): Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai (called Lal-Bal-Pal) gained prominence. They advocated:

• Swadeshi: Use of Indian-made goods.
• Boycott: Rejection of British goods, institutions, and titles.
• National Education: Setting up Indian-run schools and colleges.
• Mass Mobilization: Using festivals (like Ganesh Chaturthi by Tilak) and religious symbols to unite people.

Impact in Punjab: Lala Lajpat Rai was a key leader. The movement saw bonfires of foreign cloth in Lahore and Amritsar. It fostered a new spirit of self-reliance.

Outcome: The partition was finally annulled in 1911, showing the power of mass agitation.

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2.1.4 The Revolutionary Movement (1900s-1930s)

Frustrated by slow progress, some youth turned to secret societies and armed struggle.

• Aim: To inspire fear and overthrow British rule through individual heroic actions.
• Examples:
• In Bengal: Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar. Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to assassinate a British judge.
• In Punjab: Lala Lajpat Rai’s death (from injuries after a police lathi-charge in 1928) led to Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev taking revenge by killing police officer Saunders. Their later arrest and execution (1931) turned them into legends.
• Abroad: The Ghadar Party (1913) was formed by Punjabi immigrants in the USA and Canada to liberate India by force.

Daily Life Connection: Even today, songs and stories of Bhagat Singh are popular in Punjabi households, showing how deeply these heroes are woven into our cultural memory.

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2.1.5 The Gandhian Era (1919-1947)

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915 and transformed the nationalist movement into a mass struggle.

Key Gandhian Movements:

1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

• Causes: Rowlatt Act (1919), Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), and injustice to Turkey after World War I.
• Gandhi’s Call: Indians to resign from government jobs, leave British schools and colleges, boycott foreign goods and elections.
• Success: Massive participation, especially by students, lawyers, and peasants. Chauri Chaura incident (1922), where a police station was burnt killing policemen, led Gandhi to call off the movement, emphasizing his commitment to non-violence.

2. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

• Iconic Event: Salt Satyagraha (Dandi March, 1930). Gandhi marched 385 km from Sabarmati to Dandi to make salt, defying the British salt tax.
• Slogan: "Do or Die."
• Wide Participation: Women, traders, and peasants actively joined. In Punjab, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) led the Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) in the Northwest Frontier Province.

3. Quit India Movement (1942)

• Slogan: "Do or Die" – a final call for the British to leave India.
• Nature: A spontaneous, mass uprising. Leaders were arrested immediately. Underground activities, strikes, and protests spread everywhere.
• Punjab's Role: Despite heavy wartime censorship and military presence, protests occurred in cities like Lahore, Amritsar, and Ludhiana.

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2.1.6 Towards Independence and Partition (1945-1947)

• Post-War Scenario: After World War II, Britain was weakened. The Indian National Army (INA) trials of Subhas Chandra Bose’s soldiers sparked massive public sympathy.
• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Failed to secure agreement between Congress and the Muslim League.
• Mountbatten Plan (1947): With communal violence rising, the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, proposed partition.
• Independence: At midnight on 14-15 August 1947, India became free. Punjab was partitioned between India and Pakistan, leading to one of history's largest migrations and tragic violence.

Punjab’s Story: The partition deeply scared Punjab. Lahore went to Pakistan, while cities like Amritsar and Jalandhar remained in India. Millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved east, and Muslims moved west, amid horrific bloodshed. This history is a vital part of the collective memory of Punjabi families.

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Conclusion

India’s freedom struggle was a vast tapestry woven with threads of peaceful protest, revolutionary sacrifice, and mass resilience. It taught the world the power of non-violent resistance. Yet, it also left behind the deep wound of Partition. As future teachers in Punjab, you carry the responsibility of sharing this complex history with empathy, helping children understand the value of freedom, unity, and peace.

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EXERCISE: QUESTIONS & DETAILED ANSWERS

1. Discuss India’s main events of the struggle.

Introduction:
India's journey to freedom was marked by a series of significant events that evolved from localized revolts to a nationwide mass movement. These events reflected the growing political consciousness and the unwavering desire for Swaraj.

Main Events in Chronological Order:

1. The Revolt of 1857: The first major armed uprising against the British East India Company. Though unsuccessful, it established a tradition of resistance and ended Company rule.
2. Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885): Provided a common all-India political platform to voice Indian demands constitutionally.
3. Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement (1905-08): Marked the beginning of mass-based, aggressive nationalism involving boycotts and the promotion of Indian goods.
4. Formation of the Muslim League (1906): Signified the emergence of organized communal politics, which would later shape the demand for Pakistan.
5. Home Rule League Movement (1916): Led by Tilak and Annie Besant, it popularized the demand for self-government within the British Empire.
6. Rowlatt Act Satyagraha & Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): Gandhi’s first all-India Satyagraha; the brutal massacre at Amritsar turned public opinion decisively against British rule.
7. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Gandhi’s first mass movement, mobilizing millions in a peaceful withdrawal of cooperation from the British.
8. Civil Disobedience Movement & Dandi March (1930-34): Defiance of the salt law showcased the power of symbolic, non-violent civil disobedience.
9. Quit India Movement (1942): The final, decisive mass uprising demanding an immediate end to British rule.
10. Independence and Partition (1947): The culmination of the struggle resulted in freedom but also the tragic division of the subcontinent.

Conclusion:
These events, each building upon the last, demonstrate the evolution of the struggle from elite-led petitions to a people’s movement. They collectively forged a national identity and made British rule unsustainable.

2. What was the 1857 revolt? Explain its causes and results in detail.

Introduction:
The Revolt of 1857 was a major, widespread uprising against the political and economic dominance of the British East India Company. It is often termed the "First War of Independence" for its national character and scale.

What was the Revolt?
It began on May 10, 1857, in Meerut as a mutiny of Indian sepoys and soon engulfed large parts of North and Central India. Civilians, displaced rulers, and landlords joined, transforming it into a popular rebellion. Key leaders included Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb, and Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Causes in Detail:

1. Political Causes:

• Annexation Policies: The Doctrine of Lapse (by Lord Dalhousie) annexed states like Jhansi, Satara, and Nagpur, angering ruling families.
• Humiliation of the Mughal Emperor: The Mughal dynasty was reduced to mere figureheads in Delhi.
• Annexation of Awadh (1856): This loyal princely state was annexed, dispossessing a large number of talukdars (landlords), soldiers, and officials.

2. Economic Causes:

• High Land Revenue: Peasants were crushed under heavy taxes, leading to widespread indebtedness.
• Destruction of Handicrafts: British factory goods ruined India’s traditional weavers and artisans, causing economic distress.

3. Social & Religious Causes:

• Fear of Westernization: Reforms like the abolition of sati and promotion of widow remarriage were seen as attacks on Indian traditions.
• Missionary Activities: Active Christian missionaries and laws favoring converts created a fear of forced conversion.
• Introduction of New Technology: Railways and telegraphs were viewed with deep suspicion.

4. Military Causes:

• Racial Discrimination: Indian soldiers were paid less, had fewer promotion prospects, and were treated with contempt.
• General Service Enlistment Act (1856): Required sepoys to serve overseas, which was against religious beliefs for many.
• Immediate Cause – Greased Cartridges: The introduction of the Enfield rifle, with cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, offended the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.

Results in Detail:

1. End of Company Rule: The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1858, transferring all powers from the East India Company to the British Crown.
2. New Administrative Structure: The Secretary of State for India (a British minister) and the Viceroy (replacing the Governor-General) were instituted for direct rule.
3. Policy of Divide and Rule: The British began to deliberately exploit religious differences, marking a shift in their strategy to maintain control.
4. Military Reorganization: The ratio of British to Indian soldiers was increased. Crucial artillery and technical posts were reserved for Europeans.
5. Conciliation towards Princes: The Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned. Indian princes were assured of their rights and became pillars of British support.
6. Inspiration for Future: Though suppressed, the revolt became a symbol of resistance and sacrifice, inspiring later generations of freedom fighters.

Conclusion:
The Revolt of 1857 was a watershed moment. It ended one phase of British rule (Company rule) and began another (Crown rule). It exposed the discontent simmering under British policies and set the stage for the organized national movement that would follow.

3. Why is the era of 1919-1947 called the Gandhian era?

Introduction:
The period from 1919 to 1947 is rightly termed the "Gandhian Era" because Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, philosophy, and methods became the dominant force shaping the Indian National Movement, transforming it into a truly mass struggle.

Reasons for this Designation:

1. Gandhi’s Leadership and Philosophy: Upon his return from South Africa (1915), Gandhi introduced the core principles of Satyagraha (truth-force), Ahimsa (non-violence), and Swaraj (self-rule). These became the moral and strategic bedrock of the struggle.
2. Transformation into a Mass Movement: Before Gandhi, the movement was largely confined to the educated urban elite. Gandhi connected with the common people—peasants, workers, and women—using simple symbols (like charkha and salt) and language. Movements like Non-Cooperation (1920) and Civil Disobedience (1930) saw unprecedented mass participation.
3. Innovation of Unique Methods: Gandhi devised powerful methods of protest that were uniquely Indian and non-violent:
• Non-Cooperation: Peaceful withdrawal of support from British institutions.
• Civil Disobedience: Deliberate and public breaking of unjust laws (e.g., Salt Laws).
• Fasting: As a moral weapon for self-purification and protest.
4. Focus on Social Regeneration: Gandhi linked political freedom with social reform. He championed Harijan welfare (fighting untouchability), Hindu-Muslim unity, and women's empowerment, making the freedom struggle a holistic mission for national upliftment.
5. Decisive Campaigns: All the major nationwide movements in this period were led by Gandhi:
• Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34)
• Quit India Movement (1942)
6. Moral Authority: Gandhi’s personal integrity, simplicity, and willingness to share the sufferings of the people (like during the Dandi March or in prison) gave him unparalleled moral authority. He could mobilize millions and also control them, as seen when he called off movements to prevent violence (e.g., after Chauri Chaura).

Conclusion:
From 1919 onwards, Gandhi’s ideology and leadership were the central pillars of the freedom struggle. He redefined the movement’s goals, expanded its base to include every Indian, and gave it a powerful, ethical, and distinctly Indian character. Therefore, this decisive period leading to independence is forever associated with his name—the Gandhian Era.